Humayun’s Tomb, located in Delhi, is an architectural masterpiece and a precursor to the Taj Mahal. Built between 1565 and 1572 CE by Empress Bega Begum, it is the first grand Mughal mausoleum in India and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This monument serves as the final resting place of Emperor Humayun. But do the architectural features cast doubt on the temple’s architectural influences?
Historical Background
Humayun, the second ruler of the Mughal dynasty, faced a turbulent reign marked by defeat, exile, and eventual return. After losing his empire to Sher Shah Suri, he regained the throne but died unexpectedly in 1556 CE. His widow, Bega Begum (Haji Begum), undertook the responsibility of building a magnificent tomb in his honor. She personally supervised the construction and even travelled to Mecca for Hajj, further emphasizing the tomb’s significance as a spiritual monument.
Designed by Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, the tomb was constructed on the banks of the Yamuna, some architectural elements reflect Indian (Hindu temple) influences, likely due to the involvement of local craftsmen and artisans.
Architectural Features
Humayun’s Tomb was a ground breaking structure in the evolution of Mughal architecture, introducing several elements that later inspired the Taj Mahal. It was the first garden tomb in India, marking a departure from earlier Mughal invasion-era tombs.
Key Features:
Double-Domed Structure: The massive white dome sits on an octagonal drum, creating a grand visual impact.
Charbagh Garden Layout: The tomb is set within a Persian-style Charbagh, a four-part garden layout symbolizing paradise in Islamic tradition.
Red Sandstone and Marble Inlay: The tomb is built using red sandstone with intricate white and black marble inlays, showcasing exquisite craftsmanship.
High Arches and Vaulted Entrances: The structure features monumental iwans (arched entrances) on all four sides, a hallmark of Persian and Timurid architecture.
Ornamental Chhatris (Pavilion-Like Domes): Small domed pavilions, typically found in Rajput and Hindu temple architecture, decorate the tomb’s roof.
Jali Screens and Calligraphy: The delicate stone lattice screens (jali work) allow light and air to pass through while adding an aesthetic touch. These screens, though an Islamic feature, bear resemblance to carvings found in earlier Indian temples.
Hindu Temple Influences incorporated in the Design
While Humayun’s Tomb is fundamentally an Islamic funerary structure, many architectural elements suggest pre-Islamic Indian influences:
Raised Platform: The entire structure is elevated on a massive plinth, similar to Hindu temple foundations that signifies sacredness. The massive gateway (pishtaq) echoes Persian designs but is also reminiscent of monumental Hindu temple entrances.
Chhatris (Pavilion-Like Domes): Typically associated with Rajput architecture, these are seen on the tomb’s upper structure commonly seen in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. These were not typically found in Persian tombs but became a signature of Indo influenced architecture.
Red Sandstone Construction: The patterns carved into the red sandstone facades resemble motifs found in Hindu and Jain temples. The extensive use of red sandstone with white marble inlays resembles materials used in early Hindu and Jain temples, such as those in Rajasthan and Gujarat. Persian structures mainly favored baked bricks and tiles, but invaded Mughal buildings incorporated indigenous Indian materials.
Vastu-Based Symmetry: The perfect alignment of the Charbagh gardens and tomb structure follows some Vastu Shastra principles, indicating an influence of Indian architectural traditions.
While there is no concrete evidence that Humayun’s Tomb was built on a pre-existing Hindu structure, its fusion of Indian and Persian elements reflects highly influential use of great Indian architeural designs, which was populary found all over the state but was later invaded, destroyed and converted over time.
Decline and Restoration
Over the centuries, Humayun’s Tomb witnessed periods of neglect and deterioration, particularly during British rule. The once-meticulously maintained Charbagh gardens were replaced by an English-style garden, altering the original Indo-Persian aesthetic.
By the 20th century, the tomb had lost much of its grandeur, prompting conservation efforts. Major restoration work began under the supervision of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), with further revitalization undertaken by INTACH and the Aga Khan Trust for Culture in collaboration with UNESCO. These efforts focused on removing later additions, restoring the original Charbagh layout, and reinforcing structural integrity.
Today, after conservation, Humayun’s Tomb stands restored, and there lies a possibility, that alterations of ancient elements might have been removed or changed completely and the original influence might not be visible to the current viewers. Though there are no official reports on the same but a possiblity remains in the corner.
Neela Gumbad, located within the Humayun’s Tomb complex in Delhi, is an architectural marvel from the Mughal invasion era, distinguished by its striking blue-tiled dome. Built in the late 16th or early 17th century, it is believed to be the tomb of a Mughal noble, though historical records do not definitively confirm the identity of the individual buried within. The monument is among the earliest examples of glazed tile decoration in India, and being influenced by the Indian architectural elements.
Architectural Features of Neela Gumbad
Dome and Facade
The most distinctive feature of Neela Gumbad is its vivid blue-tiled dome, which gives the monument its name. The use of Persian-style glazed tiles was relatively rare in India at the time, making this structure an early example of this technique.
The dome sits on a square chamber with an octagonal drum, a form frequently seen in Islamic funerary architecture.
The exterior walls are decorated with remnants of geometric and floral tilework, adding to its aesthetic appeal.
Interior Design
The interior of Neela Gumbad is relatively plain, with remnants of stucco plasterwork that once adorned its walls.
The absence of elaborate calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions, typical of Mughal tombs, suggests a more localized influence in its design.
Hindu Architectural Influences
While Neela Gumbad is predominantly an Islamic funerary monument, there are certain architectural features that hint at pre-Islamic Indian influences:
Bracketed Eaves (Chhajjas): These overhanging eaves, commonly found in Hindu and Rajput architecture, are present in the structure.
Ornamental Carvings: Some of the floral patterns resemble traditional Hindu temple motifs, indicating the involvement of local artisans.
Octagonal Plan Similarity: The eight-sided structure is reminiscent of stepwell and mandapa designs seen in earlier Hindu architecture.
Historical Significance
Neela Gumbad was constructed around the same time as Humayun’s Tomb (mid to late 16th century), making it one of the earliest Mughal-era structures in Delhi. The use of Persian tilework and traditional Indian elements reflects the cultural influence from the land. It remains one of the most visually unique tombs in the Humayun’s Tomb complex.
Conclusion
Neela Gumbad stands as a testament to the rich architectural diversity of the ancient period, incorporating elements of Persian, Timurid, and Indian craftsmanship. While primarily an Islamic funerary structure, the presence of Hindu-style brackets and floral motifs highlights the blending of artistic traditions in medieval India. Today, Neela Gumbad remains a fascinating yet often overlooked structure, offering insight into the evolution of Indo-Islamic architecture.
Kali Gumti, nestled within the serene surroundings of Deer Park in Hauz Khas, Delhi, is a lesser-known yet historically significant monument. This medieval structure is a striking example of Indo-Islamic architecture, reflecting the artistic and cultural advancements of the Delhi Sultanate period. Despite its historical importance, Kali Gumti has suffered from neglect and vandalism, with graffiti and carvings marring its original beauty. This article delves into its history, influenced architectural features, and the modern challenges it faces.
Historical Background
Kali Gumti is believed to have been constructed during the reign of the Lodi or Tughlaq dynasties (14th–15th century), a period known for its impressive architectural innovations. The structure likely served as a tomb or a gateway, contributing to the urban fabric of medieval Delhi. Hauz Khas, meaning “Royal Tank,” was an important hub during the Delhi Sultanate, with several monuments and structures built around the large water reservoir originally commissioned by Alauddin Khalji in the late 13th century.
Over the centuries, the surrounding area of Hauz Khas evolved, with the Tughlaqs and later dynasties adding madrasas, tombs, and pavilions to create a vibrant center of learning and administration. Kali Gumti, though smaller in scale compared to the nearby Hauz Khas monuments, has fated its way into being in an abondoned condition where the visitors have sprayed graffitis and vandalised the ancient structure.
Architectural Features
Kali Gumti exhibits several key elements of Indo-Islamic architecture, including:
Simple Design: Unlike grander structures of the period, Kali Gumti is characterized by a minimalist yet elegant design, typical of tombs and smaller pavilions of the time.
Pointed Arches: The structure features pointed arches, a hallmark of Islamic architecture, providing both aesthetic appeal and structural stability.
Domed Roof: A significant feature of Islamic tomb architecture, the dome of Kali Gumti reflects Persian and Afghan influences.
Thick Stone Walls: Built with locally available stone, the monument showcases the durability and craftsmanship of medieval builders.
Carved Niches and Minimal Ornamentation: Unlike larger tombs and mosques, Kali Gumti has relatively simple decoration, with a focus on geometric patterns and calligraphy.
Vandalism and Modern-Day Damage
Despite its historical and architectural significance, Kali Gumti has become a victim of neglect and vandalism. Over the years, visitors have defaced the monument by carving their names onto its walls and spray-painting graffiti, diminishing its authenticity. These unsanctioned markings obscure the original craftsmanship and contribute to the degradation of the structure.
Lack of maintenance and awareness about heritage preservation has further worsened the condition of the monument. Encroachment and unchecked visitor activities have resulted in making the monument vulnerable to further deterioration
While the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and local heritage organizations have undertaken some conservation projects in Hauz Khas, structures like Kali Gumti often receive less attention than larger monuments.
Conclusion
Kali Gumti, a quiet yet significant structure in Deer Park, Hauz Khas, is a reminder of Delhi’s medieval past. However, its historical monument is being overshadowed by vandalism and neglect.
Kale Khan Ka Gumbad: A Possible Converted Monument
Kale Khan Ka Gumbad, a 16th-century tomb located in Delhi, believed to belong to an individual named Kale Khan, though historical records provide little clarity about his identity. This Lodhi-era structure is an example of early Indo-Islamic architecture, featuring a blend of Persian, Afghan, and Indian influences. Positioned within the historical complex of Nizamuddin, the monument often goes unnoticed despite its architectural significance.
Notably, historian Sita Ram Goel listed Kale Khan Ka Gumbad among monuments that he argued were built over pre-existing Hindu temple sites. Given the historical context of temple demolitions and repurposing of structures during the medieval period, this claim raises important questions. Elements such as the raised plinth, potential reuse of temple materials, and stylistic influences like chhatris (domed pavilions) suggest that the tomb may have incorporated remnants of an earlier Hindu shrine.
Architectural Features of Kale Khan Ka Gumbad
The tomb follows the octagonal plan typical of the Lodhi dynasty, topped with a massive hemispherical dome. Constructed primarily of Delhi quartzite and red sandstone, it features arched entrances on all sides, reflecting the characteristic simplicity of Lodhi-era tombs. The structure also includes intricate jali (lattice) work, decorative medallions, and remnants of floral motifs.
Key Architectural Elements:
Dome and Squared Base: The large dome rests on a raised platform, supported by squinches and pendentives—typical features of early Ancient Indian structures influenced Islamic architecture in India.
Pointed Arches and Minimal Ornamentation: Unlike later Mughal tombs, which had elaborate designs, Kale Khan Ka Gumbad maintains a modest aesthetic, focused on structural strength.
Use of Chhajjas and Brackets: These overhanging eaves are reminiscent of earlier Indian temple architecture, hinting at indigenous influences in Islamic structures.
Hindu Architectural Influences
While built as an Islamic tomb, some architectural features of Kale Khan Ka Gumbad reflect pre-Islamic inavasion Indian elements:
Corbelled Brackets and Chhajjas: These overhanging eaves resemble traditional Hindu and Rajput architectural features found in temples and palaces.
Floral and Geometric Designs: The remnants of decorative motifs bear similarities to Hindu carvings, which often emphasized nature-based patterns.
Material Use and Construction Style: The tomb’s construction techniques show similarities to pre-Islamic invasion stone masonry methods, possibly hinting at skilled Hindu artisans working on the monument.
Historical Significance and Legacy
Built during the Lodhi period (1451–1526 CE), Kale Khan Ka Gumbad is an example of the transition between Delhi Sultanate architecture and the later Mughal style. The structure reflects the simplicity of Lodhi tombs while incorporating indigenous architectural traditions. Today, the tomb remains a lesser-known monument, overshadowed by grander structures in Delhi.
Conclusion
Kale Khan Ka Gumbad is a fascinating piece of Delhi’s architectural history, showcasing the fusion of Indo-Islamic and indigenous Hindu elements. Whether these influences are due to repurposed materials, skilled Indian artisans, or a deeper cultural exchange, they highlight how architectural styles evolved in medieval India. Preserving such monuments and conducting further research to find out the actual primary monument is necessary. The authentic research is required also because the society must understand and accept the results of the islamic invasion which has marked a hard blow to all the suffered Hindus and the temples.
Jantar Mantar: An Astronomical Marvel of the 18th Century
Jantar Mantar in Delhi is one of five astronomical observatories built by Maharaja Jai Singh II of Jaipur in 1724. Designed to aid in the precise measurement of celestial movements, this observatory was an ambitious scientific project that sought to refine astronomical calculations and improve timekeeping. The name “Jantar Mantar” is derived from the Sanskrit words “Yantra” (instrument) and “Mantra” (formula or calculation), symbolizing its function as an advanced astronomical tool.
Architectural and Scientific Significance
Unlike traditional buildings, Jantar Mantar is a collection of massive geometric instruments crafted from stone and masonry, each serving a distinct purpose in astronomical observations. The key instruments include:
Samrat Yantra – A giant sundial that measures time with remarkable accuracy, capable of recording time to an accuracy of 2 seconds.
Jai Prakash Yantra – A hemispherical structure with markings that help determine celestial altitudes and positions.
Misra Yantra – A complex instrument designed to determine the longest and shortest days of the year, as well as the exact moment of noon in various cities worldwide.
Rama Yantra – Used to measure the altitude and azimuth of celestial bodies.
Each of these instruments was built to function without the use of telescopes, relying entirely on shadows and alignments to track planetary and solar movements.
Purpose and Historical Context
Maharaja Jai Singh II, an ardent scholar of astronomy, constructed Jantar Mantar to improve upon existing astronomical tables and correct errors in planetary positions recorded in earlier texts. The observatory was built at a time when Indian astronomy had fallen behind advancements in the Islamic and European worlds. Jai Singh’s initiative sought to revive and modernize India’s astronomical studies, ensuring more precise celestial predictions for astrological, navigational, and administrative purposes.
Jantar Mantar in Delhi was the first of the five observatories he built, followed by those in Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, and Mathura. These observatories played a crucial role in reforming the Indian calendar, refining astrological predictions, and aiding in timekeeping for religious and governmental functions.
Legacy and Preservation
Jantar Mantar remains an architectural and scientific wonder, attracting historians, scientists, and tourists alike. Despite its brilliance, many of its functions have become obsolete with the advent of modern astronomical instruments. However, it stands today as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, preserving the legacy of Jai Singh II’s scientific advancements.
Conclusion
Jantar Mantar is more than just a collection of stone instruments—it is a symbol of India’s historical contributions to astronomy. Its unique design and purpose demonstrate the scientific spirit of the 18th century and the ambition of Maharaja Jai Singh II to bring precision and accuracy to celestial calculations. Today, it serves as an enduring reminder of India’s rich heritage in astronomical studies and architectural innovation.
Jamali Kamali: A Monument Shrouded in Mystery and Architectural Enigma
Nestled within the Mehrauli Archaeological Park, the Jamali Kamali Mosque and Tomb stand as an exquisite yet enigmatic structure from the Mughal era (16th century). The monument is named after the Sufi saint and poet Sheikh Fazlullah, known as Jamali, and an unknown figure referred to as Kamali, whose identity remains a mystery. While officially regarded as an Islamic structure, several architectural elements within the complex hint at possible pre-Islamic origins, leading to speculation that it might have been built over an earlier Hindu site.
Architectural Brilliance of Jamali Kamali
The complex consists of two main structures: the mosque and the tomb, both exhibiting exquisite red sandstone and marble craftsmanship. The mosque features intricate floral motifs, geometric designs, and calligraphy, while the tomb houses an ornately decorated chamber adorned with glazed tilework and Persian inscriptions.
Key Architectural Features:
Ornate Arches and Domes: The arches display a fusion of Indo-Islamic styles, yet certain decorative elements bear similarities to Hindu temple carvings.
Eaves (Chhajja) and Pillars: The overhanging eaves, supported by carved brackets, bear resemblance to those in Hindu and Jain temples.
Floral and Lotus Motifs: Hindu temple iconography often includes lotus and floral engravings, some of which appear subtly within the tomb and mosque interiors.
Use of Spolia: Several stones and carved elements appear repurposed, hinting at materials taken from pre-existing Hindu structures.
Oriented Courtyard Layout: While mosques typically align towards Mecca, some aspects of the open courtyard and pillar placements suggest possible modifications from an earlier structure.
Hindu Temple Influences and Possible Pre-Islamic Past
Despite being a celebrated Mughal-era site, certain features raise questions about its origins:
Reused Materials: Many medieval Islamic structures in Delhi, including the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, were built using stones and pillars from dismantled Hindu and Jain temples. Similar signs can be seen at Jamali Kamali.
Architectural Continuity: The integration of Hindu-style brackets, eaves, and lotus motifs suggests the involvement of artisans familiar with temple architecture.
Absence of Clear Historical Records: Unlike other prominent Mughal structures, there is little documentation on the original foundation of Jamali Kamali, leaving room for speculation.
The Supernatural Mystique of Jamali Kamali
Adding to its intrigue, Jamali Kamali is considered one of Delhi’s most haunted sites. Many visitors have reported eerie experiences, from whispers and shadows to inexplicable sensations. The presence of an unverified burial (Kamali’s identity remains unknown) further fuels speculation about the site’s mysterious past.
Conclusion
The Jamali Kamali Mosque and Tomb remain a fascinating example of Indo-Islamic architecture, but their subtle Hindu influences and reused architectural elements open up possibilities of a pre-existing sacred site. While it stands today as an important Mughal-era monument, further archaeological and historical investigations might uncover layers of history hidden beneath its striking facade. Whether it was built over a former Hindu temple or simply incorporated elements from one, Jamali Kamali continues to be one of Delhi’s most intriguing historical enigmas.
Agrasen Ki Baoli: An Ancient Reservoir with a Mysterious Past
Tucked away amidst the modern skyline of New Delhi, Agrasen Ki Baoli is a stunning yet enigmatic stepwell that echoes the architectural grandeur of a bygone era. This ancient structure, located on Hailey Road near Connaught Place, is a historical marvel that has sparked numerous speculations about its origins. While officially attributed to Maharaja Agrasen, a legendary king from the Mahabharata era, the present structure is believed to have been rebuilt during the 14th or 15th century by the Agrawal community. However, certain architectural elements hint at an even older, possibly Hindu temple influence, raising the question: Could Agrasen Ki Baoli have been a sacred Hindu site before evolving into a functional stepwell?
Architectural Brilliance of Agrasen Ki Baoli
Agrasen Ki Baoli is an architectural gem, featuring 103 stone steps that lead down to the now-dried reservoir. The rectangular structure measures approximately 60 meters in length and 15 meters in width, exhibiting a sophisticated multi-tiered design with arched niches and chambers on either side. The structure is composed of three levels of arched corridors, providing an eerie yet captivating visual experience as one descends towards its depths.
Key Architectural Features:
Stepped Reservoir: The main feature of the baoli is its series of descending steps, allowing access to the water source regardless of seasonal changes in water levels.
Ornate Pillars and Niches: The walls of the baoli are adorned with intricately carved niches and alcoves, some of which bear resemblance to Hindu temple mandapas (pillared halls) commonly found in ancient temples.
Floral and Geometric Motifs: The carvings on the baoli’s walls showcase lotus patterns and floral engravings, both significant symbols in Hinduism.
Arched Chambers: While the pointed arches on the walls are reminiscent of Indo-Islamic influences from the later periods, the presence of certain semi-circular arch designs aligns more closely with Hindu and Jain architectural traditions.
Presence of a Shrine: Some historical accounts and local lore suggest that a small shrine or temple once existed within the baoli premises, potentially indicating its earlier use as a religious site before being converted into a utilitarian structure.
Hindu Temple Influences in Agrasen Ki Baoli
Despite being labeled a medieval stepwell, certain elements suggest the baoli may have had religious significance in the pre-Islamic era:
Symmetry and Vastu Alignment: Traditional Hindu water structures, like temple tanks and stepwells, were built in strict accordance with Vastu Shastra, ensuring harmony with the natural elements. Agrasen Ki Baoli’s geometric precision and alignment with cardinal directions strongly indicate adherence to these ancient architectural principles.
Sculptural Relics: While many of the original carvings have been eroded over time, faint traces of Hindu deities or auspicious symbols have been reported in historical studies.
Connection to Sacred Water Bodies: Water has always played a crucial role in Hindu religious practices, and stepwells were often attached to temples or pilgrimage sites to facilitate ritualistic bathing and water conservation. Agrasen Ki Baoli’s grand scale and careful construction suggest it may have served a similar purpose before being repurposed.
Legends of King Agrasen: The baoli’s association with Maharaja Agrasen, a ruler linked to Sanatan Dharma and Vedic traditions, strengthens the theory that this site originally had religious significance.
Possible origins of the Ancient Site
Several factors contribute to the hypothesis that Agrasen Ki Baoli may have been a sacred Hindu site before being repurposed:
Cultural Transition Over Centuries: Delhi has witnessed multiple dynastic transitions, from Hindu rulers to Turkic and Mughal invaders. Many Hindu structures were modified, repurposed, or overlaid with newer architectural elements.
Islamic conversions of Hindu Stepwells: Several stepwells across North India, originally built by Hindu kings, were later used or renovated by invaded rulers. The addition of Islamic-style arches at Agrasen Ki Baoli suggests later modifications rather than an original feature.
Absence of Inscriptions: Unlike most Mughal-era constructions, which prominently feature Persian calligraphy, Agrasen Ki Baoli lacks any clear inscriptions attributing it to a specific ancient ruler, reinforcing the possibility that its origins predate Islamic rule in Delhi.
Conclusion
The key factor of this article is to understand the origins of the Ancient monument and to understand if any possible conversions of the site is discovered.
Agrasen Ki Baoli stands as an architectural enigma, seamlessly blending elements of Hindu, Jain, and later Islamic styles. While its functional role as a stepwell is undisputed, the presence of Hindu architectural motifs, its alignment with Vastu principles, and the legends surrounding its origins all fuel speculation that it was once a sacred Hindu site. Whether it was a temple tank, a spiritual retreat, or simply a grand water reservoir, its past remains shrouded in mystery. More archaeological and historical research may yet unveil the deeper secrets of this Ancient Baoli.
Thirumalapuram Rock Cut Temples—The Pasupathynatheswarar Temple, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu.
Picture this: The rocky Varanasimalai hill (also known as Varanachimalai hill) in Thirumalapuram in Sankarankovil taluk of Thirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu. Step back into circa 750 CE, when the hill would have come alive with an army of craftsmen chiselling away into the rocky hill! Disregarding the blazing sun and the heat radiated by this rocky hill, they went on to carve out two temples from the solid rock face—the southern one is unfinished, while the north-facing one has been completed with finesse and is simply spectacular.
Today, twelve-plus centuries later, this temple—the Pasupathynatheswarar Temple—continues to be a sacred one for Lord Shiva’s devotees. There are special pujas here on every Pradosham Day (13th day of each lunar fortnight, a sacred day for Lord Shiva; praying on this day helps remove doshas or flaws in oneself) and on the annual Thiru Karthikai Day and the annual Maha Shivaratri Day.
The Pasupathynatheswarar Rock Cut Cave Temple is a marvel in stone and invokes an upsurge of emotions. An extensive temple chiselled out of a rocky mountain at a height of about 650 feet from ground level, this temple is reached by walking up a steep flight of steps that were carved out too. This ancient temple has a Façade flanked by pillars and pilaster, a GarbhaGrha (Sanctum Sanctorum) dedicated to a Shivalingam, and a rectangular MukhaMandappa (hall) with carved out niches housing exquisite, larger-than-life bas-relief sculptures of the Trinity of Hindu Gods—Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva—and Lord Ganapati.
A Nandi in the centre of the mandappa used to face the Shivalingam, like in any Shiva temple—used to, because the Nandi has been vandalized now and only its base remains, though supposedly, this temple is under the “protection” of the Archaeological Survey of India. Devotees continue to worship the remains of the Nandi even today.
Incredible Workmanship
As you walk through the façade into the temple, you step into the rectangular MukhaMandappa (5.91m X 3.13m), which has three niches carved out on its southern wall. Imagine excavating so much of stone out of a rocky mountain without power tools! By the way, the floor of the Mukha Mandappa as well as the façade is levelled evenly. In fact, there the ancient Pandya architects have even fashioned a long groove across the entire length of the facade to drain away rain water! Such has been their attention to detail and care for this temple.
The pillars of the façade, with BrahmaKanta (cubical structures) at their top and bottom and an octagonal columns (Vishnu Kanta) between them, is adorned with lotus medallions. There are Tarangapotikas or fluted corbels above them.
Priceless Bas-Relief Sculptures
The bas-reliefs of this temple are among the finest examples of Early Pandya Art and mesmerize us by their sublime aesthetics, besides evoking awe at the kind of devotion that the king of the day and the craftsmen must have had, to have attempted and accomplished this marvelous stone temple.
Lord Nataraja in chatura tandavam
The beauty of Lord Nataraja here, with his left foot slightly raised and the right foot on the floor is to be seen to be understood. The first niche (1.86m X 1.41m) of the Mukha Mandappa features a beautiful, four-armed, dancing Lord Shiva (Nataraja) in the ‘chatura tandavam’ dancing pose (the 107th dance posture among the 108 dance postures of Shiva). Bhootha Ganas stand on either side of him; the Gana on his right has been destroyed and only his legs remain, while the Gana on his left is seen playing the sirattai kinnari (a traditional Tamil musical instrument) with his right hand.
Lord Nataraja—with a cresent moon to the left of his jatamukuta (crown of braids)and the braided locks flowing down his shoulders—is seen holding a flower in his rear right hand, while he holds the yajnopavita (sacred thread) withhis front right hand, a palm leaf manuscript in his rear left hand, and has his front left hand stretched out above his shoulder. With a serpent coiled around his waist and thighs, an elaborate girdle with a floral clasp tying the short garment that he wears around his waist, adorned by serpentine spiral armlets and anklets, a palm leaf coil on his right ear lobe, a forearm band, a yajnopavita and udarabandha—Lord Shiva here is a sight of incredible beauty and mesmerising power.
The middle niche (1.90m X 1.40m) has a beautiful bas-relief of four-armed Lord Vishnu in standing posture. He is seen holding a sankha (conch) in his rear right hand, chakra (discus) in his rear left hand; his front left hand is on his waist and his front right hand is in Anjali Mudra. Lord Vishnu has been depicted wearing makarakundala on his ear lobes, a kritamakutam with wheel, udharabandha and yajnopavita, and adorned with sarapali, armlets and a forearm band, and attired in his pitambara garment in panchakacha style. There is a bhootha gana on either side of Lord Vishnu, their faces expressing entranced devotion.
Next to this is the niche (1.68m X 1.34m) with the bas-relief of a seated Lord Ganesha. Lord Ganesha here is an Idampuri Pillaiyar in Maharajaleelasanam. He is seen holding the pasa with his rear right hand and the tusk with his rear left hand. His front left hand is seen resting on his belly, while his front right hand holds a modhakam. Lord Ganesha is adorned with karantamakutam, armlets, fore-arm band, udhara bandha, and yajnopavita.
A Rare Sight
This is also one of the rare temples with Lord Brahma. On the eastern wall of the mukha mandappa of this temple is a niche with the relief sculpture of Brahma in standing posture with three visible heads and four arms. His right front arm rests on his hip, while his left front arm holds a dried bottle gourd. He holds a flower with his right rear arm and a palm leaf manuscript in his left rear arm. Lord Brahma is seen wearing a dhoti in panchakacha style. He is adorned with a jatamakuta, yagyopavitam (the sacred thread), sarapuli, udharabandha, keyura, and thick bangles.
Shivalingam That Has Seen Centuries of Abhishekam
The garbhagrha (sanctum sanctorum) of the temple lies on the western side of the carved out Mandappa, and is flanked by Dwarapalakas (gate keepers) at its entrance. At the centre of the sanctum sanctorum is a monolithic Shiva Lingam with squarish Avudaiyar (base). In the centre of the hall and facing the Shiva Lingam is the remains of a monolithic Nandi. One can see from the lingam that regular abhishekam was once performed for the Shiva Lingam. Jagathi, vrittakumudham and prathivari elements are present in the plinth (prathivari bandha adhitanam) of the sanctum sanctorum.
Inscriptions Demonstrating Local Patronage of the Temple
Traces of early Pandya murals and a couple of later-day inscriptions adorn the temple. Of the two inscriptions, one is a 11th century inscription while the other is a 12th century inscription (under one of the pillars) that mentions that a prince named Chakravartin Srivallabhadeva had gifted fertile land with trees, wells and tanks to the temple, demonstrating that widespread worship of these Hindu deities was prevalent in Tamil Nadu even then.
History of the Temple
The architecture style of this temple has been classified as the ‘Early Pandya Style’. Visualize the effort and the devotion that has gone in to carve out such poetry in stone from this unyielding rock of a mountain! The Thirumalapuram Rock Cut Cave Temples is a site of invaluable religious, historic and artistic value throwing light on the deep-seated Hindu ethos of Tamil Nadu.
On paper, the temple is supposed to be a ‘Centrally Protected Monument of National Importance” and preserved and maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India, Thrissur Circle. The bitter reality is that the Nandi has been vandalised and not much has been done to protect or highlight the importance of the temple.
This historic temple was carved out at a time when Pandya kings ruled this region. Temple art and culture flourished under their devout patronage and this was supported by the prosperity brought in by pearl trade across oceans by the Pandyas, such that the Pandya empire came to be tagged as ‘the richest kingdom in existence’ by venetian traveller and writer Marco Polo, who explored the Pandya Empire in the 13th century, after arriving at its port Kayal. Historical records state that King Maravarman Rajasimha I ruled between 730–65 CE, followed by the rule of Nedunjadaiyan/Varagunavarman from 765–815 CE.
A Tale of Woe: Regular Worship Prohibited; Lord Shiva Awaits His Due
History narrates that the Pasupathynatheswarar Temple was all along a functioning temple thronged by devotees from far and near, until in 1922 when these ancient cave temples were brought under the “protection” of Archaeological Survey of India. From a time of daily worship at the temple, it has come to pass that devotees have had to go to court to get the rights to celebrate the annual overnight Maha Shivaratri at the temple, with the ASI once restricting the customary overnight Maha Shivaratri celebrations here from sunrise to sunset (https://indiankanoon.org/doc/249161/).
A pertinent point that is recorded in this writ appeal is that “originally regular poojas were being offered by the devotees at this temple; the regular worship was interrupted only after the Thirumalpuram rock cut temples were declared to be an ancient monument in the year 1922 under the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 and came under the ASI.”
Can the ASI interfere and put a spoke in the religious affairs of a community?
Priceless Pandya Legacy Lies in Languish
Today, as you walk up the path leading to this centuries-old temple, you will find an entire church complex staring down at you from atop this very mountain, with crosses and Church buildings all over the place.
A “Sendamaram Tirumalaimatha Church” now stands on top of Thirumalapuram Cave Temples that is under the “protection” of the ASI. Notice the name “Thirumalainatha” meaning “lord of Thirumalai” and closely patterned on the lines of Pasupathynatheshwarar! How could such blatant appropriation be allowed? This church is under the Diocese of Palayamkottai and their website openly states that the Church was built after destroying an ancient temple and using its materials: “First Sendamaram had only a small thatched church as its possession…. and he built up a chapel with the stones of a dilapidated Hindu Temple.” (http://www.palayamkottaidiocese.org/diocese/shrines/8) .
As it to add insult to injury, the Church complex built on the encroached temple hill has put up facilities and shelter spaces for Christian pilgrims and priests, while the Pasupathynatheshwarar Temple that has been in existence for centuries has no facilities for Hindu devotees.
A Case of Bizarre Ownership
To a complaint, the ASI has replied that the ownership of 62.22 acres of land including the Thirumalapuram rock cut Shiva temple belongs to Rev Father J Mahe, SJ Superior of Roman Catholic Mission (https://twitter.com/reclaimtemples/status/1374014951040282628?lang=en). This is a slap on the face to the devotees of Pasupathynatheswarar and the Pandya kings who have built this marvel in stone.
How is even possible for a later-day church to lay claim on a hill that has been the site of a temple for twelve-plus centuries? How could this historic temple site be under Christian occupation? Is it even legal?
Footnote: The Thirumalapuram rock cut temples lie about a kilometer away from the Thirumalapuram Bus Stop on the Senthamaram-Kallidaikurichi road, about 5km from Kallidaikurichi. Neolithic tools and other archaeological finds unearthed in this region point out that Thirumalapuram was the site of civilization even 10,000 years ago.
This research article is part of our efforts to locate and document ancient Hindu temples that is under encroachment and ruins. Efforts are then made towards their revival and restart of worship. You can support via https://reclaimtemples.com/donations/documenting-destroyed-ancient-temples/. This will strengthen the efforts and enable us make interventions on ground.
In the south-western part of New Delhi, the area that is now called Vasant Kunj, few kilometers from Qutub Minar, lies the tomb of prince Nasirudin Mahmud, eldest son of Mughal Sultan Shamsud-Din Iltutmish.
Indira Gandhi Centre of Arts, Ministry of Culture, GOI says about Sultanghari on its website –
‘The Sultan Ghari’s tomb lies about 8 km southwest of the Qutub, near Mahipalpur (originally known as malkapur). It was built in 1231 by Sultan Iltutmish over the remains of his eldest son and heir-apparent, prince Nasiru’d-Din Mahmud.
Laid out within a walled enclosure with bastions on corners, which impart it the look of a fortress, its octagonal grave-chamber lies underground, as the level around it was raised by a rubble-packing. The ceiling rests on columns raised with two pillars each robbed from an earlierHindu shrine; carved lintels from another were found embedded in the thick lime-concrete roof. Other pieces were used in the ceilings of the prayer-chamber and bastions and the pillars re-utilised in the verandahs, originally used as a madrasa, after chipping the decoration off them. The tomb was repaired later by Firoz Shah Tughluq.’
Almost every source or mention of Sultanghari on the web uses the word ‘built’ for a glaring example of an intolerant wound inflicted on the history of a dharmika heritage which has been now crying for about 800 years that it has been forcibly hybridized and appropriated, initially with force, and later the acceptance came by the sheer propaganda of secularism. This in spite of the fact, that most historical written sources mention that a hindu structure, most probably a temple, stood there and the destructed parts of which were unabashedly misused to create the tomb.
The monument of Sultanghari is made of grey granite, red sandstone & marble with Hindu motifs and later-era Islamic inscription were added tastelessly to mark a religious victory. If nothing else, the pictures are narrating the saga eloquently.
Various ASI (Archeological Survey of India) officers in the past have written about the existence of a Hindu structure, most probably a big temple, at the exact location of Sultanghari, which was constructed during the Gurjara-Pratihara period. Some of these are mentioned in the book ‘Hindu Masjids’ by Prafull Goradia. Quoting some important statements from the book –
Naqvi has taken pains to describe at length the edifice which began as a temple, got converted into a tomb and to which was added a masjid with a marble mehrab and then a gate with pretty Arabic calligraphy of verses from the Holy Quran. As he puts it, the gateway projects 13 ~feet from the enclosure wall and is approached and entered by a flight of steps flanked by two square rooms which are roofed with stone slabs in the Hindu fashion. The external archway of the gate is formed by overlapping courses of marble and around it is the important Arabic inscription in Kufic characters.
He winds up his description with the words: The Hindu elements in the architecture of the monument are apparent in the dome of the mosque and the partly defaced Hindu motifs on some of the pillar brackets of the western colonnade. Thepresence of a Gauripatta or receptacle of a linga in the pavement of the western colonnade is a further significant point. Furthermore, the marble stones in the external facade of the mosque are serially numbered, indicating their removal from elsewhere.
The book also mentions historian Cunnigham’s writing on Sultanghari –
Cunningham’s observations made in 1871/72 should be taken even more seriously because his impartiality would be beyond doubt. There would be no bias as between the Hindu and Muslim viewpoints. In the ASI report of those years, he has written that the tomb of Sultan Ghari, with its domes of overlapping courses, appears to be pre-Muhammadan, but when to this feature we add the other Hindu features, both of construction and ornamentation, the stones set without cement in the walls, the appearance of wear or weathering of the stones, greater even than in the Kutb, though similar in material, and the fact that the inner cell was originally finished in granite, but afterwards cased with marble, it becomes extremely probable that this is, like the Kutb, a Hindu building appropriated by the Muhammadans, and the probability is rendered almost a certainty by the existence of the central cell, which is a construction adapted to some Hindu forms of worship, the Saivic, but which is an anomaly in Muhammadan architecture.
Tomb of Nasirudin MahmudColonnade with different size slabs Source – WikipediaHindu temple pillarsOne of the inscriptions in Sultanghari Source – Sanskriti Magazine
So, from most records it is evident that there indeed was a reverential Hindu structure twisted and turned into a tyrannical victory reeking of absolutism in the oppressive sense. However, the author of ‘Hindu Masjids’ and other locals of the Sultanghari area mention that both Hindus and Muslims have been offering prayers in the said premises since several years and therefore, this has come to be a symbol of Muslim tolerance.
Calling it ‘tolerance’ is baffling, because in a Hindu majority nation post Independence, one is only allowed genuine ownership of barely a very small fraction of the real heritage that is centuries old and that has survived through sacrificing a lot of blood. This is the truth that has to be accepted here. And this truth is based on historical evidential validity. That it is not indeed ‘tolerance’, it is in fact a make-believe tolerance in cases where there is clear evidence that the heritage truly belongs to the Hindus but the claim to it, is shared. This ‘tolerance’ will cease to exist if at all this becomes a Muslim majority nation and the entire history is evidence of it.
A look at different sources of information about Sultanghari suggests planned restoration work. Most suggest that the heritage area of Sultan Ghari extends to 61.8 acres. This monument has been declared as a Grade A monument by the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), The plan of restoration is under implementation by the Delhi Development Authority (DDA) and it seems to have undertaken the following construction activities as per Wikipedia –
The entrance gates of the Tomb have been built with dolphur sandstones to match with the architectural setting of the Sultan Ghari tomb, adopting the same technique as used for building the domes.
100 m of restricted area and 200 m of regulated area are demarcated and fenced and four approach paths/ tracks constructed that lead to the main tomb.
A water conservation plan (water harvesting) has also been evolved to partially meet the water requirements for the park around the tomb.
ASI’s control extends only up to 300 m from the tomb since the rest of the area surrounding it is proposed for urban development by the Army.
So as we can see, the authorities seem more interested in protecting the later creativity of appropriation of a structure rather than reclaiming the original heritage that could be older than two millenniums. Of course, the tomb and the appropriation is also a part of history, but to provide balm to civilisational wounds, an independent Bharat could do well to shift the appropriated parts of the structure to somewhere else.
So while all history has to be accepted, we have heritage sites, especially Sultanghari, clamoring for a rightful presentation as a dedication to its ancestors who must have gone at length to try and preserve what they built with great devotion and taste.
This article is part of our efforts to research, document and publish about the ancient Hindu temples that came under the sword of Islamic invaders, so that Hindu society can reclaim, restore and revive them. You can contribute towards the efforts via https://reclaimtemples.com/donations/support/ or via UPI/BHIM to donate@hsbc
Karnataka was once part of Vijayanagara empire, which successfully safeguarded the saffron flames of Dharma for close to three centuries. Also the Kakatiyas and countless other Hindu kingdoms ruled this illustrious land of Bharat, blessed by countless sacred rivers.
The might, prosperity and grandeur of the Hindu kingdoms which ruled Karnataka and nearby regions is very evident in the Hindu temples they constructed and bequeathed to next generations. The temples are known for their exquisite grandeur, intricately carved pillars and idols which had eyes of precious gems.
The plunder and loot of these temples stripped the Gods of their possessions, and many of the idols now we find in museums in foreign lands. The abode of these Gods fell into abandon and ruin as the Presiding Deity of the temple was taken away and sold in black markets by thieves.
Its is estimated that around 70,000 Hindu Heritage monuments exist in Karnataka alone. And needless to say the State Archaeology Department and Archaeological Survey of India is ill equipped to preserve them, leave alone renovate them.
At this juncture of doom, was started the #ReclaimTemples project in Karnataka by Girish Bharadwaja and other Dharmik warriors. They took the lead and started organising the local Hindu community to revive the Hindu temples now lying abandoned and in ruins.
The sincerity of their efforts saw people joining the project and leading from the front. #SundayForDharma campaign where every Hindu is asked to devote atleast one Sunday for Shramdaana and revival of ancestral temples in their locality is being embraced by people from all walks of life. The result is for all to see, as people started working for Dharma beyond the narrow confines of caste or organisational identities.
The revival of Hindu temples is happening at never seen before pace, and two ancient Hindu temples were reclaimed and revived in less than 2 months.
Rummanagudu Shri Neelakanteshwara Temple temple in Kalaburagi Karnataka was revived and NandiMurthy was consecrated and worship restarted.
Another temple revived was Rukmini Panduranga temple at Kalaburagi Karnataka. The consecration of the idols brought a festive cheer in the villages and HinduSamaj united in welcoming the Deities back to the temple.
Bharata Punarutthana Trust registered in Bangalore is leading the activities. The updates about the activities can be tracked via the twitter handles @punarutthana and @GirishVHP
