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Karimaldin Mosque, a seized Hindu temple of Vijayapura Karnataka

By @Aryabhatti

 “The (Hindu temple) design is to suggest and symbolize the Universe; the site of a temple is laid out in relation to astronomical observations… every stone has its place in the cosmic design… Can we wonder that a beautiful and dignified architecture is thus devised?” – Ananda Coomaraswamy

At the heart of the ancient city of Vijayapura, in Karnataka, rests a large and ancient temple built in the tenth or eleventh century. Vijayapura, founded by the Chalukyas, was known as the Varanasi of the South. As far back as thousand years ago this temple welcomed pious Hindus eager to experience the beautiful Svayambhu (self-arisen) deity of Siddeshwara. The temple is a charming example of Chalukyan architecture and consists of many large magnificently stone-carved pillars of the Chalukyan style, which is easily recognizable and distinct.  There is also a fairly spacious mandapa with friezes that attest to the mastery of the shilpis. For many years this temple was alive with joyous festivals, sacred rituals, yagnas, annadanams (feedings to the poor), Vedic recitations, and classical music and dance.  Like any other Hindu temple, this was a microcosm of the sophisticated culture and society that had built it.  Inside the temple, there is the customary garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) but the Svayambhu Siddeshwara no longer resides there, or anywhere else on the temple property.  The explanation is common but disturbing:  the Svayambhu Siddeshwara murti was destroyed in the year 1320 and the temple was pillaged and converted into a mosque by Muslim invaders from the Delhi sultanate per Alauddin Khilji orders.

Karim al-din mosque, a converted 1000 year old Hindu temple

And thus would begin the violent and graphic upheaval and transformation of the thriving city of Vijayapura, where Hindus, Buddhists and Jains freely practiced their religions, into a jarring Frankenstein’s monster-like city, first called Beejnuggar and then finally Bijapur.  The temples were destroyed and mosques erected with their materials, Hindu citizens were slaughtered en masse and the survivors forcibly converted or subjugated as dhimmis first, by the Delhi Sultanate and then, by the equally violent Adil Shahs.  As historian Sita Ram Goel bluntly states: “No ancient temples survive in the city of Bijapur. “ (Goel, 1990)

 

In situ Mandapa of Hindu temple inside the Karim al-din mosque

 

Pillars of demolished Hindu temples used to build Karim al-din mosque

 

Pillars of demolished Hindu temples used to build Karim al-din mosque

In this particular instance, this temple converted to a mosque is named Karim al-din for that general of Alauddhin Khilji who had invaded the city after several unsuccessful attempts.  One of the first things Karim al-din was ordered to do by Khilji was to demolish this and other temples in the city and use the remains to fashion a Jami masjid, or Great mosque of that city. It is evident when seeing the mismatched pillars and other sculptures in the Karim al-din mosque that materials from various different temples were taken and clumsily patched together. This was the usual pattern of the Muslim marauders invading Indian cities, pillaging and destroying their temples and using the materials to ‘build’ their mosques.  All of Bijapur is literally littered with such mosques and Muslim mausoleums that are in fact appropriated temples. The destruction of Hindu temples goes hand in hand with mass killings and conversions of the Hindu inhabitants.

Hindu temple carvings of Kirtimukhas inside Karim al-din mosque

 

Hindu temple carvings inside Karim al-din mosque

Karim al-din mosque’s origins are factually and minutely documented by Henry Cousens as far back as the 1880s. Cousens was the Superintendent for the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) under the British and he meticulously documented the ancient architectures of Indian cities.

Cousens states:

“Not far from the south-east corner of the Chini Mahal is one of the earliest mosques in Bijapur. It is wholly made up of pillars, beams and cornices, taken from older Hindu shrines.  The porch, in fact, is part of a Hindu temple in situ; it is the hall or mandap, with its pillar and niches, but wanting part of its roof. The shrine, which was built on this hall on the west, has been entirely cleared away, and a through passage thus gained to the courtyard within, the inner doorway, with perforated screen panel on either side of it has been inserted by the Muhammadans.  This space, between it and the next opening, was the antechamber to the shrine of the original temple.  An examination of the ends of the walls will shew how the shrine has been broken away from the rest.” (Cousens, 1889)

1885 photo of Karim al-din mosque taken by ASI Superintendent Henry Cousens when he conducted a detailed investigation of the structure

It is natural for a Hindu to feel a profound sense of loss and indignation that this beautiful temple and the society it nurtured were destroyed and a trophy mosque replaced it. Henry Cousens observations are some of the most officially documented proofs of Muslim appropriation and destruction of Hindu temple property in Bijapur. Ironically, current (non-Hindu) Western and Indian leftist academics have been occupied with re-writing history to reflect their agendas, and are intrusively demanding that the native Hindu feel happy that these bizarre structures were built with the violent annihilation of their most sacred places. White academics and their surrogates insist on imposing their Eurocentric Judeo-Christian viewpoint, negating these atrocities. This racism is deep rooted and permeates most modern discourse on demolished Hindu temples and, for the most part, goes unchallenged.

Recently the government decided that the city of Bijapur once again should be officially known as Vijayapura; the ancient city of victory. No sacred rituals, annadanams or joyous festivals have resumed in the converted temple-mosque of Karim al-din however.

References:

Aiyangar, Krishnaswami.  South India and Her Muhammadan Invaders.  London: Oxford University Press, 1921.

Cousens, Henry.  Bijapur, The Capital of the Old Adil Shahi Kings: A Guide to its Ruins with Historical Outline.  Poona: The Orphanage Press, 1889.

Cousens, Henry.  Bijapur and its Architectural Remains.  Bombay: The Government General Press, 1916.

Goel, Sita Ram. Hindu Temples What Happened to Them Volume II. New Delhi: Voice of India, 1990.

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Hindus must Reclaim All temples, Not just Ayodhya

Article by @ajaatashatru

The Supreme Court has directed to resolve the sensitive issue of rebuilding the Ram Mandir in Ayodhya out-of-court. It’s the dream of every Hindu to see the magnificent Ram Mandir in Ayodhya to end centuries of dispute. However, most of the Hindus are not thinking beyond Ram Mandir, due to lack of awareness about the historical significance and magnificence of other temple sites.

In a series of campaign (including the proof from ASI department), we will be exposing these kind of ancient masjids where earlier they were magnificent temples and is occupied forcefully by jihadis during pre & post independence era. As a country, Hindus have got every right to reclaim these temples & lands to bring back the glory because of various reasons.

Temples are not just stone structures or built to demonstrate monopolizing other religions. For every Hindu, temple is a symbol of identity to Sanatana Dharma as its roots. A temple gives an identity to a Person, Language, Culture, Heritage, Education, Civilization, History, Philosophy, Religious & Spiritual Knowledge, Science, Mathematics, Arts, Skills, Harmony and Ideologies. Historically, we haven’t witnessed any temples destroyed by any of our Hindu rulers. The great Bharatha Varsha is made out of collection of these many magnificent temples with different flavors.

Temple activities are the reflection of society. Currently, we have degenerated ourselves at alarming rates. Most of our Temples have ended up as business hubs & its earnings are misused for corrupt means including funding the jihadis. As a country, Hindus are not fully united since ages, primarily gifted by our Dharma. As individuals we are having our own freedom of speech, expression, interpretation & belief system without hurting the core.
Hindu social fabric is deeply divided & our rulers effectively exploited greatly post independence. We are not uniting for a cause, but all are individually fighting for ‘something’ in the name Hinduism. We don’t know what we need. We don’t have basic objectives to achieve. There are still modern Jaichands who are ready to destroy our remaining identity in the name of (pseudo) secularism.

Instead of building new temples and lavish religious structures, every Hindu should start fighting to reclaim lost and seized Hindu temples along with its assets to reclaim our identity. This does not mean we have to be violent or intolerant. If we follow our Dharma, we will get desired solutions including Saama, Dhaana, Bheda & Danda principles. When ‘tolerance’ becomes ‘weakness’, we have to (re)act firmly. We are not even doing this due to various factors.

All these events show that we have to fight for our own existence to reclaim our identity right from beginning. Hence as a restart to Dharma, need to reclaim all our temples as our Karma, where there are clear proofs of destruction & occupation by jihadis. Hindus should strongly unite, reform & raise above ideological differences, superiority complex, caste wars, discrimination/racism, feudalism without further delays. Dharma won’t die, but we fail Dharma.

Even, if we reclaim Ram Mandir, the problems won’t end & it’s just the beginning to counter jihadists or there will be further increase in threats from jihadists. We will win this battle, and the war must continue till our enemies are no more.

Hindus need a larger vision to restore our glories from our past with modern ideologies keeping Dharma as our foundation. Our history is distorted for the same reason, our identity is suppressed for the same reason, our educational system was weakened because of the same reason. We no need to always stay in the past, blaming ‘others’ or victimizing ourselves because of the ‘others’, now is the time to “think & act firmly”.

Hindus should start thinking the following objectives to understand our roots

• Reclaim Temples from Jihadi occupation
• Rebuild/Renovate Temples presently in ruins
• Rename our Cities
• Release the existing temples from Government control and political exploitation

The above activities unite Hindus & the ideologies for building a Nation.

We are unfortunately competing with other religions by erecting statues, idols, temples overnights at foot paths, streets or any available public places. This is partly understandable, due to insecurity caused by jihadis who are notoriously famous for occupying public spaces.

In a democracy, without mass civil movement, no political party can bring any radical change to counter Jihadis. Remember, Hindu is not a communal by birth. Hindu is more secular & rigidly follows our constitution & law of land than ‘others’. This is because of our roots existing in Dharma.

Firstly, to uphold Dharma, every Hindu should start fighting for his/her rights for the common objectives. To start with, Lets fight to Reclaim our Temples.

And to conclude, Ram Mandir is just one amongst the lakhs of Hindu temples destroyed by Muslim invaders, and one among the 40,000+ temples converted to Masjids. So lets talk of every Hindu temple destroyed by Babur and his compatriots, not just Ayodhya. Lets demand return and reconstruction of every Hindu temple presently in Muslim custody.

If Lord Rama was alive, he would have liberated all Hindu temples forcefully occupied by foreign invaders, not just a temple in his name.

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Ishwarar Kovil: Hindu temple destroyed by Tipu Sultan

Article by @shivmusik

Ishwaran Kovil is an ancient temple that was destroyed by Tipu Sultan, now being reclaimed and rebuilt in the Ramani-mudali-pudur village near Pollachi, Tamilnadu.

Overview of the temple

This temple housing Lord Shiva was originally constructed by Veeranarayana Chola in the year 816 CE. Today its referred to as “Ishwaran Kovil” in Ramani-mudali-pudur village Kaliyapuram panchayat, South Pollachi. The temple was destroyed during Tipu Sultan’s conquest of Travancore (1770-1800 CE), however the temple Acharyas then managed to protect the Shivalinga and the Nandikeshwar murthi burying them in near by agricultural fields.

Shivalinga

Its was in year 1996 a Sanyasi (Thiru Sivanesan Adigalar), from Agasthiya Sishya parampara came to visit the place (Pollachi) all the way from Thiruvannamalai (Agni kshetra Shiva kovil) by Divine ordain (Sage Agasthiyar Adviced so, in his swapna-sthitthi). Adigalar could sense divine presence in the said area, where after excavations the Shivalinga and the Nandikeshwar murthis were unearthed beneath a Vaagai tree (dated 750yrs old).

Nandikeshwar Murthy

Since then, regular poojas have been going on at the site. At present a makeshift temple houses the Lingeshwar and Nandi, while a permanent temple is also being constructed.

New temple being built

Beyond the social media, beyond the news studios, beyond the political rallies, Hindu Samaj is quietly rebuilding the Hindu temples than came under the sword of Muslim invaders.

Address of the temple:

Ishwaran kovil,
Ramanimudalipudur Village,
Kaliyapuram post,
Pollachi Taluk,
Coimbatore District,
TN- 642129.

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Should HinduSamaj expect SanghPariwar to protect Dharma

After the Bharatiya Janata Party victory in 2014 General elections, fault lines started appearing in the united right wing that actively campaigned and propelled NarendraModi to the Prime Ministership. The days that followed presented a rude shock to many who believed that a Swayamsevak who claimed to be a Hindu nationalist will actively pursue the Hindutva agenda and uplift Hindus from all evil, especially from the attack and loot on their temples and protect the cows from slaughter. What happened was not only neglect but intentional insult as per many devout Hindus. Narendra Modi grandiosely proclaimed that Islam is the Religion of peace and GauRakshaks were termed as rowdies on Saffron robes.

For the devout Bhakts, it was all part of a grand strategy, but to many the strategy was the same as that used by many political parties and is called appeasement. As we stand 3.5 years into the tenure of Narendra Modi and 91 years into the formation of Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh, it will be worthwhile to have an independent appraisal of the ideology and the organizations which many thought will turn India into a Hindu Rashtra.

It will also be interesting to know how and why the RSS terms every other Hindu organization outside its control as fringe. The reason for this is that like all “mainstream” Hindu organizations, they will never support a thoroughly reactionary, hardcore, staunch Hindu uprising. Take the US 2016 elections, for example; did any us notice just how many conservatives and Republicans said no to Trump, or just how many of them sided with Hillary? The reason for that is also the same. Those who are entrenched and recognized cannot entertain something that is genuinely meant to bypass them and not seek their approval for ascendance. The devotion to the cause never matters in their scheme of things.

When the Rakesh Sinhas of the world [Senior RSS ideologue, also Heads the India Policy Foundation] decry Hindu rituals as superstitious, “you” have to take a step back and ponder over the mindset of fellow “allies”. And here “you” mean those conscious of the historical fact that paganism in Europe, for example, was literally murdered first and foremost through the banning of heathen rituals, shortly followed by the wholesale destruction of pagan temples.

Now, this is not to say that the RSS is “bad”. It has done a whole lot of good, and continues to do much good for Indians. And that’s just it, it does good for Indians, not Hindus. As a disaster relief organization, the RSS is quite phenomenal, always the first to show up when a natural calamity happens or a social tragedy happens and help Indians out. Some Hindu-centric approaches have also been made by the RSS through Gharwapsi operations. But that does not mean that the RSS will help Hindus to reclaim their temples, or support staunch Hindus or Hindu organizations make Bharat into the Hindu Rashtra that was once graced by the footsteps of Lord Shri Rama, the best of men, a scourge to his enemies, and the most resplendent.

We have never thought how important of a movement to Reclaim Hindu Temples truly is (the movement to reclaim all Hindu temples that was seized by Muslim invaders and presently used as Masjids, and the movement to rebuild all the destroyed temples of Bharat) and the sheer veracity of such a movement. It is not for the faint-hearted, and is certainly not for anyone who would compromise wíth respect to Dharma. Therefore, it is sadly not for the RSS either. How so? Because the average RSS ideologue, regardless of how “communal” he or she truly may be, still believes in non-sequitorial reasoning like “Hindu-Muslim Bhai Bhai” and utters absurdities like “pseudo-secularism”. Pray, tell me, what in the world is “pseudo” about secularism? Absolutely nothing. “There is nothing ‘pseudo’ about secularism—it is at its most genuine when compelling Hindus to think thoughts that are not their own.” And their co-brothers in Bharatiya Janata Party now are proponents of “SarvaDharma Samabhavana” another word they coined which will translate into pseudo secularism which they are dead against. Organising Iftar for Muslims and hobnobbing with Bishops and sometimes lying at their feet as the BJP Kerala President did is the new Hindutva rituals Sangh ideologues and leaders now follows to establish a Hindu Rashtra.

To offer an example: We once had a Rgvedic king named Trasadasyu. How many of us have heard of this name? It can be translated, in quite a literal sense, as “Before whom the Dasyu trembles”. In other words, before whom the consumer of cow-flesh trembles, before whom he who does not believe in the gods and goddesses of the illustrious ancestors trembles. We once had such a king. And the manifestation of the attempt to transform Bharat into a Hindu Rashtra and reclaim all its temples is a manifestation of that great Vedic king of old.

On other side we have a Rakesh Sinha who tells us to downplay ritualism and the average RSS member still thinks there can be compromise of our rituals as also the Hindu Dharma to accommodate Muslims and Christian sensitievities. Those who are very covetous of their current positions will certainly not be fond of a resurgent Trasadasyu.

And we can safely say that like all “mainstream” Hindu organizations “acknowledged” by the Indian secular government, Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and its overgrown family is one that cannot, and should not be relied upon for the main concern of making Bharat into a Hindu Rashtra, let alone reclaim its temples.

Jama Masjid Ahmedabad, an ancient Hindu temple

Article by Nayandeep

They say to build a new narrative the old narrative has to go,and if the old narrative represents something unmatched far superior then breaking and assimilating it is the only way forward for the one replacing it. The same applies to the history of Hindu Dharma and it’s living islands of history, culture and artistry, primarily it’s ancient temples.
Right from the days of Mohammed bin Qasim to the bigoted Aurengzeb and still continuing in the form of various Jihadi outlets in our present times, one narrative continues incessantly and that’s the destruction of Hindu temples or simply making mosque out of them as and when the numbers and favorable demography dictates. Markandey sun temple in Kashmir, Ram temple of Ayodhya, Vishwanath temple of Varanasi are some of the famous one’s that come to mind apart from the thousands of others that were destroyed. One such living proof of such wanton destruction of Dharma lies in the city of Ahmedabad in Gujarat State of India. Formerly Ahmedabad was known as Karnavati under the benign Rajput rulers and original structure and name of the temple where Jama masjid exists today was Bhadrakali temple. After his victory over the infidels the Sultan Ahmad Shah 1 destroyed the statues and converted once a famous temple dedicated to Goddess Bhadrakali to a Masjid.

Even if one ignores the word and history of the persecuted Hindu’s the very walls and carvings on the pillars supporting the structure are full of idols, animals, serpents and elephant, this very fact goes against the essence of Islam followed by the sultan. Primarily the open space for offering Namaz is crisscrossed by these very same pillars which are built in a typical Hindu way of construction. The question that needs an answer is that why would a Islamist Sultan Ahmed Shah built a mosque with pagan carvings on its pillars and have pillars obstruct the Namaz of the faithful.

 

 

Perhaps the answer lies in the observation of noted researcher P.N.Oak where he delivers an interesting and thought provoking observation where he said that after 35 years meticulous study of history buildings and cities he never believed that among the many invaders, that Sultan Ahmed Shah 1 built Ahmedabad, in his own words he said and I quote “It is easily assumed that Ahmed Shah built Ahmedabad and Tughlaq Shah raised Tughlaqabad. If that were true Allahabad should have been founded by Allah himself and Delhi’s Rashtrapati bhavan by some Rashtrapati”. Among the others who hold the same view is Mr M.k.Aggarwal the writer of the book The Vedic core of human history and truth will be saviour, he clearly claims of the Hindu origin of the Jama Masjid he observes that why would pillars with serpents elephants and fairies which are an anathema to Islam be built in a mosque and that too in middle of prayer halls.

 

Common sense dictates that did the Sultan wanted the faithful to bang their heads or simply took over an ancient piece of artistic beauty and when was unable to match it by his own beliefs he simply did a cosmetic surgery of the temple and called it a masjid but was not able to completely do away with the pillars as the whole structure depended on it.

 

What hope do the Hindus have of reclaiming this Bhadrakali temple? If it’s to be done, the time is now and for that two things have to take place simultaneously, the Slumber and Dhimmitude of the present has to go and Hindu Renaissance and Revival has to be forged.

 

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Destruction of Hindu Temples by Muslim invaders

Article by @OGSaffron

Little discussed or highlighted is the psychosocial aspect that accompanied most of, if not all, the instances wherein Hindu temples were destroyed. As Jonsson (2006) points out: When “Muslim invaders broke and burned everything beautiful they came across in Hindustan,” they were “displaying the resentment of the less developed warriors who felt intimidated in [their] encounter with a more refined culture” (p. 86).

Indeed, for the Muslim invaders, the Hindu infidels—these “refined” pagans, the Kafirs—were “heathens, par excellence” (Jonsson, 2006, p. 86). Therefore, how could they build such extravagantly ornamented, finely constructed buildings if they were not Muslim? Are not the infidels supposed to be inferior in every respect to the zealous believer, to those who do not join other gods with the One True God?

When one examines the many architectural remnants that have survived in their “hybrid” form—as even the politically correct archaeologists would have us believe in “fusions” of Dharmic and Islamic “architecture” being congregational and intercultural rather than ferocious and resentful—visible is the mosque type that is the conquest mosque. The foundation of such “hybridity” is not the benign intercultural notion that secular ideologues would have us accept but instead a profound hatred of the Hindu and his place of worship. Almost every “hybrid” expression that has come down to us surviving in the form of the conquest mosque is a religious declaration, through architectural continuity, of Muslim superiority over Hindu heathenry.

To define the common feature of such “hybridity” is to capture the essence of the conquest mosque. Mosques of conquest are “mosques that are all built on the sites of dismantled temples and employ recut columns and other spolia taken from the destroyed monument” (Wagoner & Rice, 2001, p. 90).

To give an example, take for instance the inscription on the eastern gate of the Quwwat al-Islam mosque—a conquest mosque that stands as the “Might of Islam”—which records “that the mosque was built with spolia taken from twenty-seven different temples; these spolia include columns, bracket capitals, ceiling panels, and other decorative members, and the mosque can be seen to be founded on the plinth of one of the destroyed temples” (Wagoner & Rice, 2001, p. 90).

The usage of spolia from destroyed Hindu temples in the construction of conquest mosques, often on the sites of dismantled Hindu temples, is not entirely a matter of convenience and/or intercultural sharing, as secularist and Marxist historians often argue.

On the contrary, conquest mosques project quite vividly “the ghazis’ attitude toward the Hindu majority” based on “the virtues of [their] belief in Islam” where “the need to reinforce the spiritual and political authority of Islam through architecture” is in direct response to “the evils of idolatry and polytheism” (Welch & Crane, 1983, p. 124). Take, for example, Firuz Shah Tughluq’s assertion of Muslim orthodoxy when personally destroying the images of Hindu gods. These images “were burned in a place otherwise reserved for public executions and the punishment of criminals” (Flood, 2002, p. 648). The images of Hindu gods were destroyed, desecrated, or mutilated not only because of anti-heathenry, but also on the little discussed insight that the images represented the potency and purposefulness of a very sophisticated non-Muslim civilization that challenged the religious primacy of an Abrahamic faith whose zealous followers emphasized the superiority of its anti-idolatry creed (Wink, 1997). To render the idols powerless was to wash away the intimidation and shame brought on from encountering a more refined culture.

Therefore, the architectural patronage of Muslim sultans so incessantly praised by the rewriters of history is instead, and can be captured more realistically as, the religious declaration of Muslim supremacy over the nonbeliever, where Islam has been triumphant and idolatry has been subdued (Welch, Keshani, & Bain, 2002, p. 33). After all, “Muslim ghazis had brought the Jihad to India” (Welch et al., 2002, p. 31). And with that came the destruction of places of idol worship, and establishing “the foundation of congregations of Islam” in systematic fashion (Welch et al., 2002, p. 33).

To such a zealous mind, experiencing the existence of sophisticated heathenry, represented herein by the Hindu architectural tradition, was discontenting. As Lord Byron (1847, p. 293) put it: “They have raised a mosque…[and] they are not contented with their own grotesque edifice, unless they destroy the prior and purely beautiful fabric which preceded, and which shames them and theirs for ever and ever.”

Byron, G. (1847). Letter to John Murray on the Rev. W. L. Bowles’s strictures on the life and writings of Pope. In F. G. Halleck (Ed.), The works of Lord Byron; In verse and prose (p. 293). Hartford, CT: Silas Andrus & Son. (Original work published 1821)
Flood, F. (2002). Between cult and culture: Bamiyan, Islamic iconoclasm, and the museum. The Art Bulletin, 84(4), 641–659. http:/dx.doi.org/10.2307/3177288
Jonsson, D. (2006). Islamic economics and the final jihad: The Muslim Brotherhood to the Leftist/Marxist Islamist alliance. Maitland, FL: Xulon Press.
Wagoner, P., & Rice, J. (2001). From Delhi to the Deccan: Newly discovered Tughluq monuments at Warangal-Sultanpur and the beginnings of Indo-Islamic architecture in southern India. Artibus Asiae, 61(1), 77–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3249963
Welch, A., & Crane, H. (1983). The Tughluqs: Master builders of the Delhi Sultanate. Muqarnas, 1, 123–166. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1523075
Welch, A., Keshani, H., & Bain, A. (2002). Epigraphs, scripture, and architecture in the early Delhi Sultanate. Muqarnas, 19, 12–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1523314
Wink, A. (1997). Al Hind, the making of the Indo-Islamic world: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest, 11th–13th centuries (Vol. 2). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.