Tag: hindu temples

August 18, 2025August 18, 2025

Revival of Maghamaka Mahotsava

Kerala, nestled between the majestic Western Ghats and the vast Arabian Sea, has a history steeped in culture and tradition. The region now known as Malappuram district was once a thriving center of Vedic learning and religious practices. This sacred land, home to many deities and their temples, witnessed grand festivals celebrating divine traditions—some of which were lost over time due to historical upheavals.

Among these ancient celebrations, Maghamaka Mahotsava stands out as Kerala’s oldest river festival, held on the banks of the sacred Bharatapuzha River during the auspicious month of Makam. Rooted in Kerala’s deep Vedic heritage, this festival was traditionally conducted under the patronage of Kerala’s ruling kings. However, its observance came to an abrupt halt in 1766 AD following the invasions of Hyder Ali and later Tipu Sultan.

In 2019, in an earnest endeavor to revive this lost legacy, the Oral History Research Foundation and UgraNarasimha Charitable Trust rekindled the festival. This historic revival continues with the Maghamaka Mahotsava 2020, set to take place on the sacred banks of Bharatapuzha in the villages of Thirunavaya and Thavanur, Malappuram.

Maghamaka Mahotsava 2020

From January 10 to 12, 2020, under the spiritual guidance of the revered Devi Upasaka, Tantric Acharya, and Srividya Sadhaka, Shri Ramesh Nataraj Iyer (GRD Iyers Gurucool, Canada), over 100 ritwiks from Canada, the USA, Singapore, and various states across India gathered to perform the Dwi Shata Chandi Yagam and Maha Rudra Homam at Tavanoor—the Trimurti Sangam, where Parashurama is believed to have undertaken intense penance.

The spiritual celebrations culminated at sunrise on January 13, 2020, with a series of sacred rituals led by the esteemed Brahmashri Chidanandapuri. These included the Nila Puja, Nila Arati, Nila Snanam, Sanyasi Sangamam, and Yati Puja at the historic Navamukunda temple premises.

Shata Chandi Mahayajna

Conducted on January 10-11, 2020, this grand Yajna, performed as per the Sri Vidya tradition, took place in the very village where Sage Parashurama is said to have organized a similar sacred fire ritual eons ago.

Rudra Mahayajna

On January 12, 2020, the Rudra Mahayajna was conducted with great devotion. Devotees had the rare opportunity to perform the Abhisheka of a Shivling consecrated at the sacred Yagabhumi.

The Legacy of Maghamaka Mahotsava

The origins of Maghamaka Mahotsava are deeply embedded in Hindu scriptures. The Puranas and other Smritis attest to its conception by Parashurama. Literary works from the Sangha period, such as the Divyaprabandham, reaffirm this tradition. European historians like Hamilton and Jonathan Duncan, along with accounts from the Kozhikode Samoothiri Raja to the British throne in 1810, provide additional evidence of Bharatapuzha’s Maghamaka festivities.

According to legend, Parashurama, seeking prosperity and protection for Kerala, requested Brahma to conduct a grand yaga. The ritual was initially planned at Anamudi, Tamil Nadu. However, a dispute arose between Saraswati and Gayatri over the position of Yajamanapatni. Their subsequent curse upon each other resulted in their transformation into rivers that absorbed the sins of humanity, leading to the postponement of the Yaga. Eventually, the ceremony was conducted at Tapasannur (present-day Tavannur), a place sanctified by the penance of sages.

This grand Yajna, lasting 28 days, was attended by the Trimurtis—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—along with celestial beings and enlightened sages. The sanctity of the ritual led to the emergence of the holy Bharatapuzha River, enriched by the divine presence of Ganga, Gayatri, and Saraswati during the month of Magha. This spiritual significance led devotees from distant lands to flock to Nila River for a sacred dip, believing it would absolve them of sins accumulated over lifetimes.

The first Cheraman Perumal, anointed in Tirunavaya, oversaw the organized conduct of this grand festival. From that point, the right to host Mamankam—an evolution of Maghamaka Mahotsava—was established. Over centuries, the festival transitioned from an annual event to being held every three years, and eventually, every 12 years.

However, the tides of history turned violent. During one such Mamankam, the ruling Valluvakonathiri was assassinated by a faction led by Tirumanassery, paving the way for Kozhikode’s Samoothiri to claim control. This marked the beginning of bloodshed at the once-sacred festival. The history of Mamankam that survives today is largely from the era of Chekavars (warriors), while its ancient traditions remain obscure to modern generations.

The last recorded Maghamaka Utsava took place in 1766 AD. Following the invasions of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, the festival faded into oblivion.

The Vision of Maghamaka Mahotsava

The revival of Maghamaka Mahotsava aims not only to restore a lost tradition but also to rejuvenate the ancient Vedic villages of Thavanur and Thirunavaya. Thavanur, home to Kerala’s first Vedic Pathshala, now stands silent, devoid of its once-thriving scholarly pursuits. We believe that reviving this sacred river festival, along with its accompanying Yajnas, will restore prosperity to the region and bring spiritual enrichment to all participants.

Maghamaka Mahotsava 2020: A Glorious Revival

The Maha Rudra Yajna and Dwi Shata Chandi Yajna were successfully conducted with Shri Ramesh Natarajan and Smt. Gayatri Natarajan of GRD Iyer Gurucool as Acharyas. Over 100 Ritwiks from across Bharat and the world participated in this monumental Yajna from January 10-12, 2020.

During these sacred days, thousands of devotees gathered at the Yajnabhumi, witnessing and partaking in the divine rituals. The Abhisheka of the consecrated Shivling became a highlight, symbolizing the sanctity of the land and the power of devotion.

On January 13, 2020, a magnificent Nila Arati and Nila Puja were conducted on the banks of Bharatapuzha, led by revered Sanyasis and Sadhus. The sacred waters, believed to embody the presence of all holy rivers during this auspicious period, saw the ceremonial dip of sages who had assembled for the event. Swami Chidananda Puri of Advaitashram delivered an inspiring discourse to the gathered ascetics.

After being lost for over 250 years, the Maghamaka Mahotsava has finally returned. With the unwavering support of organizations and individuals, we hope to see it grow in grandeur, reclaiming its status as one of the most revered festivals of ancient Bharat.

May the sacred traditions of Maghamaka continue to flourish, restoring Dharma and prosperity to this blessed land.

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August 8, 2025August 8, 2025

Challisserry Siva Temple

THEN – THE TEMPLE WAS LYING IN RUINS, AND THE DEITIES WERE BROKEN, WHICH WERE THE RESULT OF THE RIOTS.

NOW – TEMPLE STANDS IN A REVIVED CONDITION, REGULAR PUJAS ARE NOW OFFERED.

ABOUT THE TEMPLE – Challissery in Palakkad district of Kerala is a region that was ravaged during the Mysorean invasion of Kerala.

Kizhakke Pattissery Prani Mahadeva temple is one of the many ancient temples that is lying in ruins in the region.

INITIAL STATUS – Shivling is intact. But all the structures including the Garbagriha is in ruins and has to be restored. A lamp is lighted everyday by devotees of the temple.

The devotees has been trying for more than a decade to restore the temple, but couldn’t do it for lack of support. UgraNarasimha Charitable Trust has therefore undertaken to rebuild this ancient Siva temple.

Architecture – The design of the Garbagriha has been made by Sadanandan Achary, a noted expert in temple architecture. The restoration of the temple will conform to Tantrashastras.

Revival – The restoration of the temple started with strengthening the temporary roof so that work can happen even during the rains. The first stage is the construction of temporary Garbagriha where the Shivling will be shifted to during the restoration of the temple. The old Garbagriha will be dismantled and reworked after that.

The restoration of the temple will cause a revival of Dharma as all devotees and families in the village take part in the various rituals and stages involved in reviving the Siva temple.

Restoration is proceeding well – The restoration of the temple started with strengthening the temporary roof so that work can happen even during the rains. The first stage is the construction of temporary Garbagriha where the Shivling will be shifted to during the restoration of the temple. The old Garbagriha will be dismantled and reworked after that.

The restoration of the temple will cause a revival of Dharma as all devotees and families in the village take part in the various rituals and stages involved in reviving the Siva temple.

GARBAGRIHA WORK STARTED – The work of Gargbagriha has started successfully, the walls are now brought up and are starting to form the structure.

Stage 1 of walls starts to take up shape. The walls which were in crumbled condition were first dismantled and replaced with new stones.

Celeing work – The next work in line was the celeing of the garbagriha.

After decades of poor condition of the temple, the celeing had fallen down. We have replaced the roof with new celeing ensuring the architectural plan of the temple.

Plastering work completed

Namaskara Mandapam – The work of Namaskara Mandapam has started.

Namaskara mandapam is situated in front of the sanctum where the devotees and priests offer prayers and perform prostrations to the deity.

Restoration of ancient Challissery Siva temple is complete – Its a great pleasure to share with you that the restoration of Kizhakke Pattissery Prani Mahadeva temple in Palakkad Kerala is complete. The temple is restored after two and half centuries in ruins lying buried under the earth.

This restoration and revival has been made possible by you and we would like to express our heartfelt gratitude for same. The entire village and devotees of Lord Shiva will forever be indebted for your support. The devotees has been trying for many decades to restore the temple and it finally has happened. I am attaching a few pictures after restoration.

The temple will be handed over to a committee of devotees who will manage the temple in a democratic manner and ensure daily Pujas and rituals.

UgraNarasimha Charitable Trust will continue to work with village community in developing the temple as a charitable institution which will ensure social security and spiritual progress for all devotees.

Punah Pratishta of Prani Mahadeva – Thanks to your support and contribution towards the restoration of the ancient Prani Mahadeva temple in Palakkad Kerala which was destroyed by Tipu Sultan many centuries back.

The restoration has been successfully undertaken and Punah Pratishta ceremonies were conducted on 17 Feb 2021. Shivlinga was shifted back to Garbagriha and worship in the temple has restarted.

There was wide participation of devotees and everybody is excited that after many centuries, Shivratri will be celebrated in the temple.

August 7, 2025August 8, 2025

Alathiyur Subrahmanya Temple

THEN – THE TEMPLE WAS LYING IN RUINS, AND THE DEITIES WERE BROKEN, WHICH WERE THE RESULT OF THE RIOTS.

NOW – TEMPLE STANDS IN A REVIVED CONDITION, REGULAR PUJAS ARE NOW OFFERED.

Restart of Worship – As part of the revival of the temple, Swami Bharati Maharaj lighted lamp and restarted worship of the Gods on 29 April 2018. A committee of devotees of the locality was also formed to ensure the worship and work for the revival.

Devaprashnam – The next process was Devaprashnam where astrologers find as per Tantrashastra the Deities to be worshipped in the temple, the temple plan and other details. The Devaprashnam rituals was conducted on 14-15 June 2018. All the devotees of the area came together in conduct for the temple rituals.

Construction work started on 23 Aug 2018, building of Balalayam complete – The construction work has started on 23 Aug 2018 with lighting lamp and prayers. The first step is the construction of a temporary building called Balalayam for housing the Subrahmanya and Ganesha Deity till the reconstruction of the Garbhagriha is complete. The construction work of the Balalayam is complete as on date.

The next step is the shifting of Deities to this Balalayam. This will be done by Priests on 10 Sep 2018. The Poojas of Deities will henceforth be done here till the construction of temple is complete.

After the Deities are shifted, the old dilapidated Garbhagriha will be dismantled, along with the foundation stones.

Foundation work of Garbagriha complete, stone work is next – Last update we mentioned that the old Garbagriha has been dismantled and the foundation work of new Garbagriha is next.

The land to the temple was under encroachment and we found difficulty in bringing in stones and heavy materials for the construction. Finally after discussion with all stakeholders volunteers cleared the way to the temple using JCB and we could bring stones and construction materials to temple on 4 Nov 2018.

The Shilanyas ceremony – The Shilanyas ceremony of the temple was held on 8 Nov 2018. The stones were laid by devotees and sthapathi after poojas by the Chief Priest. The devotees from entire village were in witness. The foundation work of the temple ie the portion below the ground is complete as on date.

The next stage involves stone works. This requires around 45 days since the Garbagriha is circular and hence the stone has to be chiselled in circular form.

The Garbagriha will be more visible after the next stage of work is completed.

Stone layers at base of Garbagriha complete – In last update we mentioned that the foundation work is complete. We are very excited to inform that the construction of stone layers which is the 2nd stage of the restoration is also now complete.

The 2nd stage consists of five stone layers. The work of door frames and other temple sculptures are also ongoing, being made by shilpis whose family has been undertaking temple work for generations.

Next is 3rd stage of construction which is the walls of the Garbagriha. The work has already started and will be completed in another 3 weeks.

The restoration work is nearing completion – We are very excited to share with you that the restoration work of the temple is nearing completion.

Stage 3 of the restoration was making the walls of the Garbagriha which was over last month ie February 2019.

Presently Stage 4 of the restoration is ongoing which is making the ceiling of the temple. The ceiling of the temple involves the stones placed in concentric circles decreasing in radius.

Though the Garbagriha will be circular in shape, the inside of the Garbagriha will be square. This is as per the Shilpa Shastra and traditional way of construction. The stage 4 will be completed this week. We are accelerating the restoration work so as to finish the entire project by this month end.

Restoration of Garbagriha of Alathiyur Subrahmanya temple is complete – On 13 April 2019, the Sthapathi handed over the key of Garbagriha to Keshavan Namboodiri, the 95 year old Namboodiri Brahmin who had protected the temple ruins for decades.

Keshavan Namboodiri inturn offered the key to the Deity who is the rightful owner of the temple. Later the key was handed over to committee formed for administration of the temple. The committee consists of all devotees in the village and the temple will be administered in a democratic manner.

Punar Prathishta ceremony – he rituals will start on 6 July 2019 and the Kumbabishekam will be on 11 Jul 2019.

The temple was lying in ruins for close to a century and the same could be revived only due to the support provided by you. The credit for revival of this temple goes to our esteemed donors like yourself and the team on ground who have gone through many difficulties in reviving this temple.

A committee of devotees from the locality has been formed for administration of the temple in a democratic manner and the Poojas and rituals will be handled by the traditional priest family attached to the temple.

May 23, 2020July 10, 2020

Freeing Hindu temples from government control

Freeing Hindu temples from government control is a demand that is vociferously heard and debated in many platforms. The matter is also raised by politicians during elections and is forgotten soon after that. The Hindu temples continues to be milch cows for politicians as they toil hard in their pursuit of power.

In this regard it is essential to learn few facts, the geneses and evolution of the state control of Hindu temples.

British colonial administration

When Bharat was ruled by Kings in the ancient and recent past, many grand temples were constructed under royal patronage. It was customary on part of Kings to set aside the land and produce of villages to meet the expenses incurred in the worship and rituals of the Deity. Small temples had only few villages assigned to them, but larger temples had hundreds of villages whose land revenue and produce were used for the purposes of the Deity. Eventually all these lands were considered as belonging to the Presiding Deity of the temple.

This continued for a long time till the advent of the British. The British slowly took over the reigns of the various princely states of Bharat. The East India company enacted laws enabling the vesting in itself, the superintendence of all the lands granted for support of Hindu temples. This enabled the colonial administration to tap into the land revenue and also the gold and wealth of Hindu temples.

This however had another facet. The colonial administration also got entangled in the administration of Hindu temples. The officers of the British East India company involved and participated in the various rituals and festivals of the Hindu temples. The England at that time was not a secular state. The “Act of Supremacy” enacted in 1534 declared that the monarch was the “Supreme Head of the Church of England”. The participation of the colonial administration in rituals and festivals of Hindu temples angered the Christian missionaries and the Church.

Back in England, the missionaries and the clergy exerted their influence on the British government and knocked the highest echelons of the East India Company. As a result in 1833, the Court of Directors of the company issued instructions asking all the officer to desists from the administration of Hindu temples and participation in the Hindu festivals. The order went thus “The interference of British Functionaries in the interior management of native temples, in the customs, habits and religious proceedings of their priests and attendants, in the arrangement of their ceremonies, rites and festivals, and generally in the conduct of their interior economy, shall cease.”

The colonial government further reinforced their intent to keep away from temple administration when in 1863 a law was enacted which said that it would no longer be “lawful” for “any Government in India, or for any Officer of any Government” in his official capacity, to take over the “superintendence of any land or other property” belonging to a “Mosque, Temple, or other religious establishment”, to take part in the “management or appropriation of any [religious] endowment”, to nominate or appoint any trustee in a religious institution, “or to be in any way concerned therewith”. It was clear from this that the British considered the administration of Hindu temples as a burden and wanted to keep away from it. This ended the brief period where the British colonial government controlled Hindu temples. All Hindu temples were freed from the colonial administration.

Indian politicians enter the fray

However things again changed with the Government of India Act of 1919. As per the Act, elected legislators or Indian politicians entered the British Indian administration. Certain subjects were reserved by British government for administration by elected legislature and they were termed provincial subjects. The politicians found it suited to follow the British policy of suppression and oppression rather than fight the British. These politicians behaved like the loyal slaves of British, trying their best not to offend them in any manner. They carefully charted their path accordingly.

In 1926 Madras Hindu Religious Endowments Act was passed by Indian politicians, taking over the administration of all temples in the Madras state. This sowed the seeds of administration of Hindu temples in modern India. Strangely it was the Indian politicians and not the British who fathered this monstrous law which is being used by every government to extract temple revenue to suit their own purposes. The Madras Hindu Religious Endowments Act was duplicated in many states soon, as every politician wanted a share of the wealth belonging to Hindu Deities and was looking for ingenious ways for a legalized loot.

Conditions remain the same ever after close to a century since the first law to control Hindu temples was enacted. As of now there are more than 300 legislation and rules which enable governments to interfere on temple administration. The existence of various state governments is intrinsically linked to the money they manage to loot from Hindu temples under the guise of various schemes.

When it comes to looting Hindu temples, all politicians have showed remarkable ingenuity in hiving off its wealth. While politicians like Devendra Phadnavis used temple money to finance his irrigation and development schemes, politicians like Narendra Modi wanted temple gold to be invested in certain Tughlaq schemes of his making.

The path ahead

We have done an analysis of the various legislations by which governments interfere in temple administration. This is available for download via reclaimtemples.com/templelaws

The path ahead is sure to be interesting as we are fighting against a well entrenched enemy who will use all the wealth of Hindu temples against any attempt to displace them from temple administration. Also even if the governments are vacated from Hindu temples, there will be an influx of the clans, cults, mathas of various hues who will try to take over all the wealthy temples. A solution is to have a system where the top executive and decision making body is elected democratically by all devotees of the temple. We have made a draft law of temple administration and it can be downloaded from here. Admistration of Hindu temples Draft Act v 2.1, 2020

On our part we will start the legal process where the oppressive legislations will be targeted one by one and state by state. This is ultimately a process which needs to end in agitation for success to be visible. This is a small step in this regard. Ultimately this is a fight for Hindu society and the outcome will depend on the participation of general public. Any contribution can be made via imojo.in/legal

#ReclaimTemples

November 16, 2019May 1, 2021

Hindu temples under Islamic occupation

We give below, state-wise and district-wise, the particulars of Muslim monuments which stand on the sites and/or have been built with the materials of Hindu temples, and which we wish to recall as witnesses to the role of Islam as a religion and the character of Muslim rule in medieval India. The list is the result of a preliminary survey. Many more Muslim monuments await examination. Local traditions which have so far been ignored or neglected, have to be tapped on a large scale.

We have tried our best to be exact in respect of locations, names and dates of the monuments mentioned. Even so, some mistakes and confusions may have remained. It is not unoften that different sources provide different dates and names for the same monument. Many Muslim saints are known by several names, which creates confusion in identifying their mazars or dargahs. Some districts have been renamed or newly, created and a place which was earlier under one district may have been included in another. We shall be grateful to readers who point out these mistakes so that they can be corrected in our major study. This is only a brief summary.

Sita Ram Goel

It should be kept in mind that the list below doesn’t include all the temples destroyed by Muslims and which were converted to mosques. The below is the list of mosques and Darghas where evidences exists of having been made after destroying the temples at these locations. In many mosques, Muslim rulers were able to eradicate all signs of temples, and hence not given in below list. Also the list is based on the list prepared by Sitaram Goel in 1990, hence the list correspond to the geography of the state and districts as it existed then.

Anyone is free to visit the below list of mosques and see the remnants and materials of Hindu temples. Archaeological Survey of India should conduct an excavation of below mosques to find out more about the ancient temples in these locations and possible mass graves around the mosque sites.

Andhra Pradesh : Click here to download PDF

Assam : Click here to download PDF

Bengal : Click here to download PDF

Bihar : Click here to download PDF

Delhi : Click here to download PDF

Diu : Click here to download PDF

Gujarat : Click here to download PDF

Haryana : Click here to download PDF

Himachal Pradesh : Click here to download PDF

Karnataka : Click here to download PDF

Kashmir : Click here to download PDF

Kerala : Click here to download PDF

Lakshadweep : Click here to download PDF

Madhya Pradesh : Click here to download PDF

Maharashtra : Click here to download PDF

Odisha : Click here to download PDF

Punjab : Click here to download PDF

Rajasthan : Click here to download PDF

Tamil Nadu : Click here to download PDF

Uttar Pradesh : Click here to download PDF

A Hindu temple remains so till eternity as PranaPratishta is done during the consecration. And being perpetual minors the property rights of the Deity are never abated as per law. Our Gods are lying mutilated in Hindu temple sites across Bharat awaiting resurrection and revival of worship. Be part of the movement to #ReclaimTemples

May 20, 2018May 1, 2021

#LightALamp to revive our ancestral temples

The glory of Hindu civilisation is well evident in the magnificent temples and extra ordinary architectural skills imbibed in them. Many of these temples were centers of divine energy which helps the devotees during their various stages of life and even as cure for their maladies. The Hindu Gods and Goddesses consecrated at these temple sites were believed to have protected the people and the people in turn protected them.

However during the dark days of Islamic invasion of Bharat, lakhs of Hindu temples were destroyed across Bharat and they now lies in ruins as mute witness to the barbaricity of the invading hordes. Worse is the fact that many of these temple sites are abandoned by Hindus and even the customary rituals and Poojas are not done.

We have started #LightALamp initiative where we will be reviving worship in as many Hindu temples as possible, either in ruins or abandoned or neglected by the local population.

The revival will start with devotees lighting a lamp, as simple as an earthen lamp at the temple site. This can be done by anybody and accompanied by mantras if a person is well versed in it. The offering of fire to the Deity will rekindle the Divinity of the place and the revival of whole temple will happen in due time.

We have found that many often the people who are willing to restart Poojas and worship doesn’t have money or resources. To lend a helping hand and attempting to restart worship, we will be providing Rs. 2000 per month for 6 months for meeting expenses of temples where Poojas are not done, to ameliorate the difficulty faced and for starting worship in new temple sites. We believe that initial assistance will help individuals to restart worship at these abandoned ruins in his locality . And in another six months the devotees themselves can share the expenses and continue the Poojas.

We request you to support such initiative in your ancestral village or locality and contribute towards the same directly to the person reviving the worship. Together we can build #ReclaimTemples movement and ensure that no Hindu temple in Bharat lies abandoned, no Deity in Bharat is devoid of their due worship.

If you would like to connect us to such ancient temples which needs attention, please download our Android app via reclaimtemples.com/android and submit the details of the temple.

To become a volunteer in your district, please register with us via imojo.in/dharma

#ReclaimTemples

October 18, 2017December 13, 2020

Destruction of Hindu temples in Goa by Christian fanatics

Article by @OGSaffron

While the destruction of Hindu temples by Muslim invaders gets most of the discussion spotlight, and understandably so, an exposition of anti-Hindu iconoclasm by anti-Dharmic forces would remain incomplete if it did not mention the Christian iconoclastic campaigns against Hindu society. Therefore, this brief essay correctly positions Hindu-Christian encounters as not the intercultural meeting of two distributed groups but instead a story of Hindu survival against the crusading spirit of anti-idolatry.

With that in mind, the tragic story of Goa resembles the religious nature characteristic of the destruction of Hindu temples by Muslim invaders. Indeed, and much to the chagrin of secular revisionists of Indian history, the story of Hindu survival in Goa against Christian conquistadores is rooted in the intransigence of proselytism, even though secularists would have laymen believe it to be originating from Brahmanical stubbornness that should have otherwise been receptive to the messages of Christ. Or emanating from the impatience of a heathen population already content with their ancestral traditions; or from other re-contextualizations of similar deconstruction.

In truth, the campaign against Hindu heathenry was driven by the old Judeo-Christian hostility against idolatry (Henn, 2014). Such hostility provided Christian conquistadores the perfect theological justification for both colonial conquest and the destruction of Hindu temples (Henn, 2014). In other words, not primarily a political and/or economic justification, but a staunchly religious one, as something contentious secularists purposefully hesitate to categorize. For the Hindus of Goa, this meant a ferocious and humiliating experience of subjugation. By the second half of the sixteenth century, Portuguese-Catholic forces “launched a ferocious iconoclastic campaign against Hindu culture in India that seemed to bring an end to all ambiguities and confusions regarding the identities of gentiles and Christians” (Henn, 2014, p. 40). This ferocious campaign was “directed primarily against Hindu temples and images, and affected above all India’s western coast” (Henn, 2014, p. 40).

Steeped in the old Judeo-Christian hostility against idolatry, and likely against anything outside the Abrahamic fold that embodied a cultural sophistication not sanctioned or approved by monotheistic centralization, the iconoclastic campaign devastated Goa between 1540 and 1560 (Henn, 2014). These two decades were marked by a demoralizing devastation of Hindu Goa; all Hindu temples, shrines, and images were destroyed or removed (Henn, 2014). Furthermore, the performance of public Hindu rituals was banned and actively suppressed (Henn, 2014). By 1600, most Hindus who did not convert to Christianity were either expelled or fled Goa (Henn, 2014).

Like the mosques built on top of destroyed Hindu temples by Muslim invaders, purposefully embodying architectural expressions of conquest over heathenry, so too did the Christian foreign intruders destroy Hindu temples in order to replace them with Christian images and monuments of victory (Henn, 2014). In this regard the destruction of Hindu temples by both Muslim and Christian invaders converge in that their anti-idolatry campaigns go from “a war against images [to] a war between images” (Henn, 2014, p. 40). For Goa, the significance of this change meant that the destruction of Hindu temples was outstandingly systematic, resulting in a drastic alteration of its architectural landscape.

The campaign to eradicate Hindu images was so intense that Portuguese Christians “did not just target singular and outstanding religious landmarks” (Henn, 2014, p. 41). Instead, they “systematically destroyed all Hindu temples, shrines, and images,” replacing them with Christian equivalents, which went on to birth a distinct European-Christian architectural development largely devoid of the previous traditional Hindu form that once ornamented the land praised as the Kashi of Konkan (Henn, 2014, p. 41). To quote the Portuguese poet Camoes, “Goa [was] taken from the infidel [in order to] keep severely in check the idolatrous heathen” (Henn, 2014, p. 40). And Goa was indeed taken from Goan Hindus, their images and monuments destroyed, and their public performance of Hindu rituals banned. In fact, Christian explorers like Afonso de Sousa came to India with premeditated plans to attack and destroy Hindu temples (Flores, 2007; Henn, 2014).

Premeditation of this sort affected even the Hindus of Sri Lanka, another focal point unsurprisingly driven by the old Judeo-Christian hostility against idolatry (Flores, 2007). For example, when Portuguese Christians destroyed the ancient Hindu temples of Tirukkovil and Palukamam, they adversely, and purposefully, affected Shaivism in the region (Flores, 2007). Possessed by the conviction of having an exclusive access to an absolute truth, the meeting of heathenry with monotheistic centralization was usually a history of the former attempting to survive the salvific cruelty of the latter. One may find many other examples from a deeper study of similar interactions. Yet the theme of such encounters, whether they were between Hindus and Muslims or Hindus and Christians, remained the same: destruction of heathenry in favor of a fanaticism obsessed with salvific preaching that soon but naturally turned iconoclastic.

Flores, J. (Ed.). (2007). Re-exploring the links: History and constructed histories between Portugal and Sri Lanka. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.

Henn, A. (2014). Hindu-Catholic encounters in Goa: Religion, colonialism, and modernity. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

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